Egypt’s first pharaoh remains a matter of debate

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Egypt’s first pharaoh remains a matter of debate

Published: 27 Mar. 2026, 00:05

Audio report: written by reporters, read by AI

Kwack Min-soo

The author is the director of the Korea Institute of Egyptology.

According to the third-century B.C. historian Manetho, Egypt’s First Dynasty began with Menes, who is said to have unified Upper and Lower Egypt and established Memphis as the capital of a newly consolidated state. Estimates of his reign vary widely, ranging from about 30 to 62 years, depending on the source.

The name “Meni,” regarded as Egypt’s first pharaoh, appears in the Abydos King List and is shown inside an oval cartouche at the center of the image. [Kwack Min-soo]

Menes also appears in later king lists. The Abydos King List and the Turin King List both record a ruler named “Meni,” widely considered to be Menes, as Egypt’s first pharaoh. But these records were compiled during the 19th Dynasty of the New Kingdom, between 1292 and 1189 B.C. — roughly two thousand years after the period in which Menes is believed to have lived.

The difficulty lies in the absence of evidence. Archaeological remains and written records from the era attributed to Menes do not definitively confirm his existence. It is not an exaggeration to say that there is no clear-cut material proof of him. Historical records alone do not automatically carry evidentiary value since their reliability is established only when they can be cross-checked with other sources or supported by archaeological findings.

One of the few pieces of archaeological evidence often discussed is an ivory label discovered at Naqada. The artifact features a serekh, a palace-like frame used to enclose a royal name, inscribed with the name “Aha.” This is generally interpreted as referring to Pharaoh Hor-Aha. Next to it, the sign “mn” appears, which some scholars identify as the name Menes.

However, interpretations of this inscription vary. There is an ongoing debate over whether “mn” represents a personal name or a verb. Scholars also disagree on whether Hor-Aha and Menes were the same individual. Some researchers suggest that names such as Menes or Meni may not refer to a specific person but rather function as a title describing a ruler who achieved political unification.

Another candidate for Egypt’s first pharaoh is Narmer. His existence is firmly supported by archaeological evidence, most notably the Narmer Palette. While debate continues over whether Narmer can be identified with Menes, his historical presence itself is not in doubt.

The identity of Egypt’s first pharaoh, therefore, remains unresolved. Though Menes occupies a prominent place in later historical tradition, the lack of contemporary evidence leaves room for competing interpretations.

This article was originally written in Korean and translated by a bilingual reporter with the help of generative AI tools. It was then edited by a native English-speaking editor. All AI-assisted translations are reviewed and refined by our newsroom.